Brazil Culture

Comparison between marriage customs in America and Nigeria Research design It is often said that marriages are made in Heaven, and therefore, a suitable partner is very much of a necessity so as to lead a very happy and satisfied life. We often witness two types of Marriages, mainly, love marriages and arranged marriages. In love marriage, two adults decide to involve themselves in the holy bond of matrimony and in the other the families of the groom and the bride, or the third parties, a very active role in determining the match. In earlier days arranged marriages were the norm; this research provides a comparative analysis of the different practices and beliefs in  marriage  in the American and Nigerian contexts. The research contends that in effect,  marriage  rituals are characterized as dynamically developing to include or allow social changes that happen in terms of looking for a potential domestic partner . Marriage is the most important event in a persons life and the ceremony and tradition involve dare an integral of the day. Marriage customs and ceremony are based on the religion and the country the person is in. There are lots of difference in the marriage customs between Nigeria and America, like in country â€Å"Nigeria†, marriage procedures follows step by step which depends on where the man comes from, either from the eastern part (called the Ibos), western (called the Yoruba’s) and the northern part of Nigeria (called the Hausas), in this research I would be talking about marriages only in the western region. Marriage in the western region of Nigeria involves various stages before the couple can be declared as husband and wife. Before a man can marry a woman he ought to go through some traditional rituals and process which involves quality time and money. This involves three different stages, firstly is the â€Å"momimo† meaning â€Å"introduction† in Yoruba language, then the â€Å"idanaadehun igbeyawo† meaning â€Å"engagement† and lastly the main event called â€Å"ayeye igbeyawo† meaning wedding, after this last process then the couple can now called regarded as husband and wife. The first stage: â€Å"THE INTRODUCTION† is the part of the occasion whereby the man and his family goes to the woman’s family to ask of approval of their daughter’s hand in marriage. The procedure involves the groom and his family, and a person called â€Å"olopa iduro† meaning standing policeman. The standing policeman is the one who speaks on behalf of the groom’s family, he might be a family member or hired for the occasion. This same procedure also applies to the bride’s family but in this case the appointed speaker is called â€Å"olopa ijoko† meaning sitting policeman in Yoruba language. The whole procedure takes place in the bride’s family house where everybody will gather around waiting for the groom’s arrival, meanwhile preparations like food and other things would be made down by the bride’s family. The bride’s family is supposed to be dressed in the native attire which implies respect for the culture. The groom and his family are expected to come on the time appointed but there is a concept called â€Å"African Time† where no one is expected to arrive at the actual time appointed for the occasion, nevertheless if the groom and family arrive too late and keep them the bride and family waiting for short while, they might be asked to leave or probably allowed to appeal to the family by paying a traditional fine to the bride’s family before they could be accepted. hen the groom and his family gets to the brides place, as soon as the enter the house the men prostrate to the brides parents while the bride kneel down to the groom family, this is a respectful way of exchanging greetings according to Yoruba culture. After all the cultural greetings they take their seats whereby both families sits on opposites sides of the room with the bride and groom in the center while the olopa ijoko and olopa iduro take the seats in the middle so as to be get a close attention of everybody closely. The â€Å"olopa iduro† (the standing policeman) starts by introducing the groom and his family to the bride and her family then he brings out a proposal letter from the groom’s family and gives it to the brides family through â€Å"olopa ijoko† (the sitting policeman). The proposal is then read out orally to the bride’s family, since it is already comprehended that the couples are going to be married, the proposal is not usually rejected at this point. The groom also ays an amount of money called â€Å"owo ori iyawo† meaning bride price and this goes directly to the bride. When various introductions have been made, the proposal is accepted on the spot then they make arrangements for the second process of the marriage which is the ENGAGEMENT. THE ENGAGMENT is the part of the occasion whereby the bride and groom are tied together traditionally based on the Yoruba culture, this also takes place at the bride’s house and again they are responsible for the refreshments and other necessary preparations for the occasion. This part of the occasion, both families are meant to wear Yoruba traditional attire called â€Å"aso oke† which are more elegant and expensive, later on some prayers are said and some symbolic items of food are passed around by the â€Å"olopas† (The two policemen) and it’s then passed around to the guest, which is then used to bless the bride and groom in a prayer said in Yoruba language. The first item is â€Å"obi† (kola nut) then elder says â€Å"won ma gbo† meaning they will ripen Won ma to  meaning they will eat and not go hungry Won ma d'agba meaning they will grow old. The second item is â€Å"Ata ire: this consists of many seeds, and it is opened up, and the superstition is that the number of seeds that fall out is the number of children the couple will bear. The third item is Oyin (honey), sugar, ireke (sugar cane): these all symbolize that the union will be sweet. The grooms family also bring lots of other thing like yam, drinks, wine, palm oil, during all these before she shows up, she usually waits in her indoors until she’s called for, she comes out wearing a veil made of plaited hair which represents reserve and accompanied by one of her friends and taken to her parents then kneels down before so they can give her their blessings, she then sits near the groom, this is when she becomes unveiled. The couple jumps over a brush covered with flowers which symbolizes the stating of a domestic life, the groom then kisses her then everybody begins to eat and rejoice till the end of the occasion. The third and final stage of the marriage is the main wedding which is held in a church or mosque depending on the religion. This is the part of the occasion where they are joined by God and exchange vows. They can now be called husband and wife and go on a honeymoon if they could afford it but not really necessary, start living together and raise a family. On the other side American marriage are held upon high standards and based upon strong values that are shared between the two parties being wed, these two are brought together to form their sacred bondage of love and life with each other. Weddings in America are known to be the most flexible and varied in the entire world due to the variation of race and ethnic backgrounds that the American culture embodies. In America, a man and a woman meet in the most casual and social way like a bar, restaurant, events and other lots of places, they don’t need to do too much introduction to get married as long as they love one another. There is only one procedure in getting married in the United States which is mainly in the church. Friends and family assemble, soft slow romantic and the vows add to the charm of the marriage customs. In America, before the marriage the bride have a little get together called bridal night where only her and her female friends have a last night of all alone fun before her matrimonial life begins and also the groom also have his own party called bachelors party is going out with his male friends to have fun before his marriage. In an American marriage, the bride wears a pure white gown and the groom wears a black tuxedo. Since the weeding takes place in church, it is usually conducted by a priest who ask the people in the church if they have any problem with the joining of the man and woman as husband and wife or keep silent forever, then if nobody talks, the priest then ask the couple to kiss as a symbol of the union, sealed with love from God. It’s the custom for the newly wed to on a honeymoon and have a period of intimate time alone, like a vacation. It’s clearly seen that both marriage customs between the two counties are totally different, which has been the standard in as long time. Refrences and bibilographic source Marriage Customs in Many Lands (Hardcover – Jan 2005) by  H. Hutchinson Marriage Customs of the World: From Henna to Honeymoons (Hardcover – 2004/11/30 Knot Tied: Marriage Ceremonies of All Nations By  William Tegg African Ceremonies  by  Carol Beckwith Culture and Customs of Nigeria (Series – Culture and Customs of Africa) By toyin falola

Greater Autonomy Over The Content Of The Curriculum

The being of some signifier of relationship between course of study policy and instructor professionalism would look to be an established premise. This is apparent in claims that course of study reform is frequently regarded as a menace to teacher professionalism ( Al-Hinei 2003 ; Apple 2009 ; Locke et Al. 2005 ) . Most notably, it is frequently claimed that the degree of prescription in the English National Curriculum, along with the associated demand to run into the prescribed results, reflects a decrease of instructor liberty in favor of answerability ( Walsh 2006 ) . It would look, at this degree so, possible to reason that a decrease in cardinal prescription equates to an addition in teacher liberty which in bend equates to an sweetening of instructor professionalism. To an extent this would look to be an purpose of recent course of study reform in Scotland in the signifier of the Curriculum for Excellence ( CfE ) . The first page of the first ‘Building the Curriculum â₠¬Ëœ papers claims that ‘teachers will hold greater range and infinite for professional determinations about what and how they should learn ‘ ( Scots Executive 2006:1 ) . However, such a straightforward relationship between course of study policy and instructor professionalism would, pulling on Evans ( 2008 ) , be an over-simplification. Evans suggests that professionalism can non be understood entirely, through analyzing instructors ‘ ‘remit and duties ‘ ( p.23 ) , and instead we must see the ways in which teachers themselves understand their professional duties. To an extent this would look to be recognised in Scotland ‘s course of study reform, in for illustration claims that the reform requires a ‘culture alteration ‘ ( Scots Government 2009a:5 ) and the accent on the demand for professional development ( Scots Executive 2006:2 ) . This suggests acknowledgment that a alteration of instructors ‘ remit and duties entirely may non hold a important impact upon professionalism. In this sense, the CfE may possibly be regarded as stand foring, but besides necessitating, a alteration in our apprehension of teacher professionalism. In visible radiation of this, it becomes pertinent to see exactly the nature of this implied alteration in apprehension of teacher professionalism. This essay will research peculiarly the deductions of greater instructor liberty in choosing the content of the course of study. This entails sing: what is meant by teacher professionalism, issues that arise in relation to choosing course of study content, and the impact of these issues on our construct of instructor professionalism. Professionalism In order to research the impact of the CfE upon teacher professionalism it is necessary to hold an apprehension as to what precisely ‘professionalism ‘ agencies. This poses some trouble as the term would look to miss a clear definition, and seems to be understood rather otherwise by different people ( Al-Hinei 2003:41 ; Evans 2008 ) . In a general sense nevertheless, it can possibly be regarded as a description of the nature of the function and demands of a member of a profession ( Goodson 2003:126 ; Evans 2008:25 ) . This of class begs the inquiry as to what a ‘profession ‘ is. Harmonizing to Carr ( 2000:22 ) the term ‘profession ‘ may be regarded as bespeaking a distinguishable ‘class or class of business ‘ consisting of occupations such as ‘doctor ‘ or ‘lawyer ‘ , and sometimes ‘teacher ‘ . It is in sing those characteristics that distinguish a ‘profession ‘ from other businesss that the cardinal issues associated with ‘professionalism ‘ come to the bow. Some regard the construct of ‘profession ‘ to be a socially constructed agencies of continuing power with a certain group of people by confering a particular position upon certain businesss ( described in Locke et Al. 2005:558 ) . Carr ( 2006:173 ) suggests it refers to those businesss that are indispensable in continuing civil society ( wellness, justness and instruction ) . Others suggest that there are certain specifying features which mark out an business as carry throughing the standard for ‘profession ‘ ( Locke et al 2005:558 ; Christie 2003:845 ) . However, despite this diverseness it would look possible to place certain recurrent subjects in relation to those businesss classed as professions: they have some distinguishable cognition base or expertness ; they provide some signifier of service to society ; and, as alluded to in the debut, members of a profession have autonomy to do professional opinions ( Carr 2000 ; Christie 2003 ; Goodson 2003 ; Locke et Al. 2005 ) . Professionalism, so, may possibly be regarded as describing: the demands of a member of a profession in footings of their cognition and expertness ; their range for independent determination devising ; and a definition of their function in its service to wider society. If we consider teacher professionalism straight, Menter et Al. ( 2010:17 ) , place ‘four theoretical accounts ‘ of professionalism ( ‘effective ‘ , ‘reflective ‘ , ‘enquiring ‘ and ‘transformative ‘ ) , each of which conceives of the professional cognition base and range for teacher determination doing otherwise. The ‘transformative ‘ theoretical account besides defines the societal function of learning otherwise – as ‘contributing to societal alteration ‘ , instead than conveying societal norms ( Menter et al. 2010:24 ) . Therefore, the relationship between course of study policy and professionalism would look to lie in the manner in which the course of study defines a instructors ‘ function in footings of the cognition that is required and the degree of liberty for professional determination devising afforded by the course of study. Whilst Evans ( 2008:27 ) argues that we can non understand the true nature of instructor professionalism by mention to the policy that defines it, pulling on Locke et Al ( 2005 ) , it would surely look just to propose that the manner in which a instructors ‘ function is perceived officially does hold affect instructors ‘ positions as to the nature of their functions and duties. As has been mentioned antecedently in relation to the English National Curriculum, the issue of instructors ‘ liberty and range for doing professional opinions would look to be a peculiarly combative issue. Menter et Al ( 2010:22 ) suggest that a normative course of study, in which there is less range for professional opinion, would look to associate readily to a theoretical account of professionalism which emphasises ‘technical achievement ‘ . It would look that cut downing instructors ‘ liberty narrows the cognition and expertness that is expected of a instructor. Goodson ( 2003 ) suggests that a focal point on the proficient facets of learning can take to a position that instructors ‘ expertness lies strictly in the accomplishments of twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours planning and behaviour direction. Carr ( 2000:15 ) refers to this as ‘restricted professionalism ‘ . Through analyzing the grounds for the being of a course of study which possibly restricts teacher professionalism in this manner we come to see the ‘tension ‘ that Locke et Al ( 2005:564 ) point to as bing between instructor liberty and answerability. Further, through understanding the possibly alone answerability faced by the instruction profession ( Carr 2003 ) , we can get down to understand the issues involved in course of study content choice. Education, or instead schooling, is basically concerned with ‘the sort of society we want to be ‘ ( White 2004a:2 ) and as such in concerned non merely with single development but besides the development of society. This is apparent in the claim that the ‘Curriculum for Excellence can play a important function ‘ in accomplishing the Scots Governments purpose ‘to make Scotland smarter, safer and stronger, wealthier and fairer, greener and healthier ‘ ( Scots Government 2008:3 ) . It is from this impression of schooling as helping, and potentially formative, society as a whole that it is suggested that schools and instructors are accountable in ways that other professions are non ( Carr 2000:44 ) . Further, instructors are besides more accountable to parents and must accept the legitimacy of the positions of ‘non-professionals ‘ in a manner that attorneies or physicians do non ( Carr 2003:64 ) . As such, it is argued that there are some d eterminations in instruction that should non be made by the instructor as they are ‘essentially political ‘ ( White 2004b:20 ) . In trying to guarantee therefore that instructors are run intoing the wants of both the province in footings of its desire for society – such as economic growing – instructors ‘ infinite for professional opinion can go squeezed. This leads us to see more closely the nature of course of study policy itself, and the function it plays in interceding between the desires of the province and instructor professional liberty. Course of study This requires an understanding as to what is meant by â€Å" course of study † itself. As with ‘professionalism ‘ , it would look to be a term which is notoriously difficult to specify, with a battalion of potentially conflicting definitions ( Dillon 2009 ) . By and large it can be suggested that ‘curriculum ‘ does non mention to a list, or patterned advance, of points to be taught. The course of study addresses non merely what is taught, but why and how instruction and larning takes topographic point. As such, curricula reflect and advance beliefs about the purposes and nature of instruction ( Flinders & A ; Thornton 2009:8 ) . Different course of study reflect different epistemic and pedagogical beliefs – beliefs about the nature of cognition and nature of acquisition and learning – in, for illustration, their administration of ‘knowledge ‘ ( Carr 1988 ) . For illustration those that emphasise the separation of cognition into topics, and those that favour integrating of capable countries. However it should possibly be noted that Carr ( 1988 ) argues that the epistemic and pedagogical bases of much course of study policy is non wholly coherent. It should besides be noted that the current treatment is centred on the construct of ‘explicit ‘ course of study ( Moore 2004:61 ) – an expressed statement of intended acquisition such as the CfE. However in sing a broader definition, course of study is besides used to mention to those experiences which lead to larning approximately, for illustration, societal norms which are non explicitly planned for. This is termed the ‘implicit ‘ ( Moore 2004:61 ) or ‘hidden ‘ ( Anyon 2006 ) course of study. However, notwithstanding the scope of attacks to understanding and making course of study, course of study design needfully entails a choice of what is to be taught. Different course of study theoretical accounts may differ in both when and by whom this procedure of choice takes topographic point. As mentioned earlier, within a normative, centralised, curriculum much of the choice is being made at a national degree by policy shapers. If we consider the CfF itself in footings of those who are doing the determinations, it is rather clear that the pick as to what to learn is non being topographic point entirely in the custodies of the instructors. Priestley ( 2010:23 ) suggests that it reflects a tendency in course of study development in general, in which there is an effort to pull on both ‘top-down and bottom-up attacks to curriculum be aftering ‘ . A procedure of choice has already occurred at the national degree. The purposes of the course of study have been set out in the signifier of the ‘four capacities ‘ – statements as to the type of individual the course of study seeks to develop ( Learning and Teaching Scotland 2010 ) . As mentioned earlier, the course of study besides aims to run into the Scots Governments desire to make a ‘wealthier ‘ and ‘healthier ‘ Scotland ( Scots Government 2008:3 ) . Therefore instructors are doing their determinations within a ‘framework of national outlooks ‘ ( Scots Executive 2006:1 ) . Decisions, possibly ideological, have been made as to the ‘skills ‘ that are deemed of import have been defined ( ‘skills for acquisition, accomplishments for life and accomplishments for work ‘ ( Scots Government 2009b ) ) . The chief countries of acquisition, possibly reflecting epistemic beliefs, have besides been decided in the signifier of the course of study countries ( such as Mathematicss ) . At a more elaborate degree, the ‘experiences and results†¦ describe the outlooks for larning and patterned advance for each of the eight course of study countries ‘ ( Learning and Teaching Scotland 2010 ) . Even within this ‘clear instructors do non hold exclusive duty for course of study content choice. In the pledge, ‘all kids and immature people should see personalisation and pick†¦ ‘ ( Scots Government 2008:17 ) , there is an outlook that students will, to a certain extent, besides be doing determinations about course of study content. Further, there is a strong accent upon collegiality, with instructors working together on course of study development ( Scots Government 2009a ) . This essay does non hold the range to see the reviews of the curricular determinations made at a national degree ( e.g. Royal Society of Edinburgh 2008 ) . Whilst recognizing that these unfavorable judgments may good hold of import deductions for the function of the instructor, this essay will see more by and large the deductions for teacher professionalism of liberty to choose content within a wide model. Through sing course of study content choice, two cardinal issues related to teacher professionalism will be raised. The first considers the consequence of sing content choice as a pedagogical accomplishment or competency as Hansen ( 1998 ) appears to make. The 2nd explores the deductions of sing a course of study as a ‘selection of civilization ‘ ( Giroux 1980:228 ) . Contented choice as pedagogical accomplishment As it would look that the major ‘political ‘ determinations have been made in the course of study in footings of its purposes and general administration of cognition, it is possible to see the instructors function as that of ‘deciding what specific purposes and what student experiences best suit the peculiar kids ‘ ( White 2004b:20 ) . In this sense the instructor is pulling on expertness as to how best move the kid onto the following phase of development, in this instance as defined by the CfE ‘s experiences and results. This demand to make up one's mind upon the particular aims, and choosing the content to enable the student to accomplish those purposes would surely look to indicate to a construct of a more enhanced professionalism than a more normative course of study. The nature of expected teacher professional cognition and expertness would surely look to be regarded as more than organizational and twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours routine. Official certification seems to propose that instructors must, for illustration ‘reflect on their pattern ‘ ( Scots Government 2009a:2 ) and have a scope of expert cognition in the signifier of ‘content cognition†¦ general pedagogical cognition†¦ .knowledge about how scholars learn ‘ ( Scots Government 2009a:4 ) . This would look to indicate to theoretical accounts such as the ‘reflective instructor ‘ ( Moore 2004:4 ) . Such a theoretical account respects learning to affect more than practical cognition and pr oficient accomplishment, instead it requires instructors to reflect on their pattern possibly pulling on their theoretical apprehension with a position to bettering and developing their instruction ( Moore 2004 ) . Menter et Al ( 2010:23 ) suggest that the demand for instructors to be involved in course of study development makes the construct of ‘the asking instructor ‘ a really relevant theoretical account. This theoretical account regards instructors ‘ professional expertness in lying non merely in the application of theoretical cognition, but besides in its coevals through action research, once more with the purpose to better their pattern ( Menter et al 2010:23 ) . These theoretical accounts would surely look to widen the construct of instructor professionalism beyond that of the sensed technicism of the ‘competent ‘ instructor. As such they may supply suited theoretical accounts for instructors who are involved in the choice of course of study content, puting an accent on instructors ‘ pedagogical expertness. However, if we turn to the 2nd construct, an apprehension of course of study content as a ‘selection of civilization ‘ ( Giroux 1980:228 ) , understanding teacher professionalism strictly in footings of pedagogical expertness may get down to look inadequate. Curriculum content as a choice of civilization In order to see the deductions of sing course of study as a choice of civilization it is necessary to find precisely what this means. Culture, in its broadest sense, may be regarded ‘as a whole manner of life ‘ , embracing all facets of society including the cognition, accomplishments and activities, such as athletics and ‘recreation ‘ , of that society ( Entwistle 1977:111 ) . As such, whatever is included in the course of study is a choice from the huge array of cognition, accomplishments, attitudes and activities which make up ‘culture ‘ . We must see so on what footing we choose what to include. If we regard instruction as being, in some manner, involved with ‘betterment ‘ , the facets of civilization we choose to include in a course of study must be those which we regard as being contributing to the ‘improvement of the person or group ‘ ( Entwistle 1977:111 ) . As such, cultural choice clearly implies a procedure of rating, separating between those things which we regard as ‘desirable or unwanted ‘ facets of civilization ( Entwistle 1977:110 ) . As White ( 2004a:3 ) argues that choice of content can merely sanely be carried out in relation to the purposes of the course of study, it would look just to propose that concerns about the choice of civilization could originate in relation to the overall purposes of the course of study and in relation to the standards by which facets of civilization are deemed worthy of inclusion. Concerns that rise in relation to the purposes of the course of study are possibly best exemplified by the unfavorable judgments of a course of study whose purpose is, for illustration to increase employability accomplishments. Those who regard cognition acquisition as holding value in its ain right would see such an instrumental attack to content choice as an poverty of instruction, restricting entree to many signifiers of civilization which may non hold direct instrumental value ( pulling on Carr et Al. 2006:17 ) . In this manner so, we can see that the choice of content is in some manner impacted upon by our beliefs about the intent of instruction. However, as has been discussed it the purposes of the CfE have been decided at a national degree, and as such possibly in world instructors have small function to play in choosing ‘desirable ‘ civilization. To a certain extent this may be true, and points once more to the ‘tension ‘ between answerability to the province, and instructors ‘ beliefs and professional opinions as to what is best ( Locke et al 2005 ) . Further, it would surely look just to propose that within the model, instructors do hold to do determinations as to what to learn in order to accomplish the ‘experiences and results ‘ . In this manner they must do opinions as to what is worthwhile, what they regard as of import or valuable cognition or accomplishments, or suited literature. It is possibly in relation to the rating as to the comparative worth of facets of civilization that the most complex issues originate. It is in sing the relationship between cognition and power that cultural choice becomes debatable. This becomes apparent when we draw on Bourdieu ‘s ( 1986:106 ) construct of ‘cultural capital ‘ . Bourdieu ( 1986:106 ) suggests that different signifiers of ‘culture ‘ are invested with value which can be drawn on for pecuniary addition, or an addition in societal position. If we consider this in footings of ‘knowledge ‘ as a signifier of civilization, so acquisition of certain signifiers of cognition by an person can be utilised in bring forthing income and increasing societal position. For illustration, geting specific biological and medical cognition can enable one to derive both the income and position conferred upon a physician. However, it is non merely the acquisition of the cognition per Se. which is valuable, but instead gaining institutional acknowledgment – in the signifier of an academic making – of possessing a peculi ar signifier of civilization ( Bourdieu 1986:110 ) . In this sense, certain signifiers of cognition, certain signifiers of civilization, have greater value by virtuousness of being ‘institutionalised ‘ in the signifier of a making ( Bourdieu 1986:109 ) . This would propose hence, that schools are involved in both the transportation of signifiers of civilization which enable an person to derive economic capital or societal position, but besides in some manner specify what signifiers of civilization are of value. Such an averment is supported by Giroux ‘s ( 1980:228 ) statement that the civilization that is selected to organize the course of study becomes ‘legitimised ‘ by the really fact of its inclusion in the course of study. Further as Moore ( 2004:61 ) points out, in choosing what to include, there is besides a determination as to what to except from the course of study. Moore ( 2004 ) suggests that through such a procedure the comparative value of different signifiers of civilization are communicated to students, with those things that are excluded regarded as unwanted. Some suggest that the footing on which such choice is carried out is based on ‘middle category ‘ values as to what should be regarde d as worthwhile ( Reay 2006 ) . An interesting illustration of such a claim is provided in Moore ‘s review of portraitures in movie of instructors who are regarded as ‘saviours and non-conformists ‘ ( Moore 2004:58 ) , such as ‘Ms Johnson ‘ in the movie Dangerous Minds. He argues that whilst the attack they take to instruction may be extraordinary, the content of that instruction is non. Moore ( 2004:58 ) contends that the cultural choice made by these instructors represents in-between category values and as such ‘may be read as lending to and corroborating societal and cultural prejudices ‘ ( p.58 ) It is in this sense that Young ( 2006:734 ) argues that ‘social involvements are ever involved in course of study design ‘ : those with the power to choose what is included in the course of study have, to an extent, the power to legalize certain signifiers of cognition and certain patterns. It is suggested that through this procedure of advancing and legalizing in-between category values schools are implicated in intrenching inequalities of societal category ( Reay 2006 ) . Such a claim requires closer consideration if we are to understand the possible connexion between cultural choice and societal justness. One manner in which it is suggested that this is the instance is that persons from a in-between category background have greater entree and exposure to the signifiers of cognition that are regarded as valuable by schools ( Reay 2006 ) . In this manner, Reay ( 2006 ) suggests, kids from in-between category backgrounds are at an advantage, able to pull on the cultural capital they already possess in order to execute good at schools, deriving institutionalized acknowledgment through academic makings, and therefore addition position in society. This would look to foreground a tenseness for those involved in choosing the content of a course of study. On the one manus, it is suggested that if schools do non supply the ‘high position cultural capital that academic and economic success requires ‘ so kids from working category backgrounds are potentially deprived of the ability to raise their societal position ( Anyon 2006:44 ) . However in making so, they are possibly complicit in reproducing prejudice as to what is regarded as legitimate and valuable cognition. Further, Young ( 2006 ) suggests that it is non sensible to see cultural choice as strictly a affair of enforcing the values of an elitist group, and that there is a legitimacy in sing some accomplishments, facets of cognition, and activities as more valuable than others. However, precisely how a instructor should make up one's mind what is worthwhile and what is non is non wholly clear. Possibly it can be based upon the ‘normative ‘ ( Entwistle 1977:111 ) , societal position as to what is worthwhile. However, this is debatable even if there is a clear consensus as to what is ‘worthwhile ‘ . As Carr ( 2003:72 ) argues, the most widespread beliefs are non needfully the ‘right ‘ beliefs. Aside from raising the complex philosophical inquiry as to what ‘right ‘ agencies, this raises the inquiry as to the societal function of teacher professionalism. Are they at that place to go through on the values that exit or should they be ‘transformative ‘ , ‘contributing to societal alteration ‘ ( Menter et al 2010:24 ) . It is from these observations upon the relationship between cultural choice and values, and the possible nexus to issues of societal justness, that it possibly seems unequal to understand instructors ‘ professionalism strictly in footings of practical accomplishments or even in footings of professional opinions based upon pedagogical cognition. Rather it would look to propose, as many ( e.g. Goodson 2003 ; Campbell 2003 ; Carr 2006 ) do, that as instruction is implicated in organizing scholars ‘ universe positions and values, it is inherently concerned with ethical considerations. These writers suggest that it is these ethical concerns and opinions that instructors have to do, that Markss learning out as a profession. Carr ( 2006:172 ) argues that whilst all businesss are in some manner concerned with ethical issues, these by and large play a ‘regulative ‘ function – they indicate criterions for good pattern. However he suggests that ethical considerations are ‘constitutive ‘ of learning. This is possibly more clear in Campbell ‘s ( 2008:604 ) averment that it is: ‘ †¦ disputing to extricate the moralss of learning from the really procedure, pattern and content of teachingaˆÂ ¦ ‘ This would look to propose that the determinations and actions made by instructors involve opinions as to what is right and incorrect non simply in a proficient sense, but instead in a moral sense. As it is suggested that ethical issues are inbuilt into the very nature of instruction, Campbell ( 2008:605 ) argues that ‘ethical codifications ‘ are deficient to turn to the issues faced by instructors. Rather she suggests that instructors requires an understanding by instructors of the complex moral issues they must turn to ( Campbell 2008:605 ) . Carr ( 2006:178 ) suggests that it is about instructors ‘taking moral issues and inquiries earnestly ‘ . It should be noted that this does non propose that instructors do non presently take moral and ethical considerations earnestly ; Campbell ( 2003:2 ) argues that many instructors are cognizant of the moral deductions of their opinions. However, Locke et Al. ( 2005:570 ) do suggest that when instructors are capable to high degrees of answerability it can take instructors ‘doing things right ‘ instead than ‘doing the right thing ‘ . Potentially, hence, the CfE ‘s focal point on greater liberty could supply greater flexibleness for instructors to do the determinations they regard to be ethically sound. At the same clip, by increasing instructors ‘ range for taking what to learn the ethical nature of instructor opinion possibly becomes even more outstanding. However, pulling upon the suggestion that the framing of instructor professionalism in policy is important to pattern, it would look of import that the ethical nature of professionalism is present in official discourse if instructors are to be afforded the clip and infinite to earnestly prosecute with these issues. The CfE may good be regarded as affording instructors greater liberty to do professional determinations as to what they teach. There besides appears to be acknowledgment ( e.g. Scots Government 2009a ) of the importance of instructors ‘ professional cognition and expertness. However, in sing the issues involved in choosing course of study content it seems just to reason that the professional function of instructors can non be framed strictly in footings of pedagogical cognition and expertness. Rather it would look that any consideration of teacher professionalism must earnestly see the ethical dimension of instruction.

Laboratory by Christopher Carroll

The book â€Å"Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory† by Christopher Carroll provides true nature, exact details and thoroughly examined and checked history of Plum Island. It is necessary to outline that findings presented in the book significantly contribute the evidence that government does have many secrets and doesn’t want them to be revealed. Thus the author appears to be a real pioneer revealing shocking facts and true facts about the island and serious diseases. The author is rather persuasive, because he uses logical arguments, conclusions and facts to defend his position. The narrative of the book flows smoothly and follows chronological order. Thus it is apparent that Carroll has succeeded both as pioneer of the problem and as talented writer. (Carroll 2004) The author shows in the book that Plum Island â€Å"on the edge of the largest population center in the United States is a ticking biological time bomb that none of us can safely ignore†. (Carroll 2004) It is necessary to mention that the book bases its evidence on the innumerable number of government documents, in-depth interviews with people and certainly access to Plum Island itself. In the beginning Carroll admits that â€Å"this is an eye-opening, suspenseful account of a federal government germ laboratory gone terribly wrong†. (Carroll 2004) Therefore, the author leads readers through secret world presenting horrifying revelations such as seriously infected workers, outbreaks of viruses, biological meltdowns, etc. The author is really outrageous with the fact that infected workers were refused to be assisted in diagnosis by Plum Island brass. Further, the author proves that the area waters are highly contaminated with periodic flushing of raw sewage. Moreover, Carroll finds associations between the outbreak of deadly West Nile virus in 1999 and Lyme disease in Plum Island. Actually the book is through exploration of the secret world of bacteria, viruses and microbiology. Carroll illustrates how the Department of Agriculture in the USA runs the Plum Island for last fifty years and states that that is â€Å"far more than wholesome grade-A eggs and the food pyramid†. (Carroll 2004) It is necessary to note that author provides new and original overview of the Island stating that is exists in the age of bioterrosism because of improper policy of the Department of Homeland Security. The book is interested in safety and security and thus it calls for action in order to show protest from biological catastrophes for future generations. Actually â€Å"Lab 257† provides new understanding of Plum Island and calls it â€Å"a biological Three Mile Island†. It is known that since 1950 this place is of great interest for researching animal diseases. Plenty of outrageous and disturbing events and news are revealed in the book involving escaped germs and lax security as well as sewage pills. Carroll thinks that some of the found viruses are potent bioterrorist weapons and thus the access to them should be limited. And it is Christopher Carroll who touches this problem for the first time. (Carroll 2004) The author believes that it is his task to reveal the secret and scandal-hidden history of the Plum Islands, because, according to his mind, the nation should be aware of horrors taking place there. Nevertheless, some moments in the book are tangled. The book reveals lots of talks with past and current workers, â€Å"filing Freedom of Information Act applications to get classified material and visiting the island itself six times†.   (Carroll 2004) The history of Plum Island is traced from its very beginning as a research facility for warfare of germs till its becoming a part of the Department of Agriculture. The author involves in the books descriptions of not only mysterious island, but also descriptions of animal diseases, bio-warfare researches, etc. He states that the island has relived the very top of its researches as well as its fall. Nowadays the island is a run-down and dangerous place with â€Å"little in the way of security, even after the events of 9/11 put the island under the watch of the Department of Homeland Security†. (Carroll 2004) US Department of Agriculture has done certain significant work in order to protect livestock of America. For example, the scientists are responsible for creating the first vaccine for foot-and-mouth disease. Carroll states that positive moments can’t exist without negative consequences and thus he says that the Department has done their best to hide the breakdowns of researches.   Thus the successful researches are plagued and since 1970s have been seriously criticized. Despite certain successful discoveries, negative effects are apparent: leaking air filters, escaping sewage, etc. what is more awful is that outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease is caused by lab's herds. It is argued in the book that â€Å"things recently went from bad to worse when many of the jobs were privatized, leading to dangerous cost-cutting†. (Carroll 2004) Further, it is necessary to mention Carroll’s recounting of the Hurricane Bob on the Island. Thus Carroll possibly hints that â€Å"the storm unleashed a doomsday scenario – one that never actually materialized†. (Carroll 2004) However, the thinks that Hurricane has positive impact compared with other outrageous revelations. Carroll assumes that scientists are responsible for setting loose the Lyme disease as well as Nile virus in 1991. Furthermore, they are to blame for new scourges taken place in the United States of America. The evidence in the book is presented by Carroll’s personal observations and investigations. Special attention in the book is paid to Lyme disease. For example, the author hints that â€Å"the Nazis experimented on Lyme disease as a weapon of germ warfare, and that after World War II; one German researcher had some dealings with the founders of Plum Island†. (Carroll 2004) Scientists in the Plum Island are though to have studied tick-borne diseases. Firstly, the disease was revealed in Lyme, Conn, in 1970s. Scientists thought hat it was caused by either deer or birds carried Lyme-infected ticks. Plum Island is situated near the Lyme and thus it is infected as well. However, other evidence suggests that bacteria caused Lyme disease has existed in American forests even before the scientists appeared in Plum Island. Factually, it is indicated that â€Å"these bacteria probably evolved in North America and only later spread to Europe†. (Carroll 2004) However, Michael Carroll mocks at the provided idea of possible Lyme history, but â€Å"the fact is that many diseases have made this sort of crossover into humans†.   He thinks if to disturb the ecosystems, the parasites are sometimes pushed out to make humans their own home. For example, malaria was a serious scourge many years ago, but then the first African farmer made an attempt to clear the forests and to create â€Å"homes† for parasites – he decoded to breed mosquitoes. Further, HIV is chimpanzee viruses which have got into bloodstreams of human in 20th century because of slaughter of chimps for meat. Thus Carroll asserts that the gravest danger nowadays is bioterrorim, because it is able to create many diseases. Bioterrorism involves climate change, globalization and deforestation. Therefore, the author thinks that Plum Island is necessary place, because SARS and anthrax have to be defeated. Thus the lab has to be kept safe and secure. (Carroll 2004) No unturned stone is left in the book â€Å"Lab 257†. The author thoroughly investigates the Plum Island’ history and illustrates workings of the lab. Special attention is paid to operations on Plum Island.   The strength of the book is a variety of information gathered from different sources ranging from interviews with employees to appropriate government agencies. Carroll skillfully assembles all the materials into research being easily readable and remarkable. Carroll is certainly talented researcher and writer and his book is one of the most shocking pieces of non-fiction. The author thinks that media will become interested in his â€Å"chilling expose of a potential catastrophe† and thus government will be forced to take measures to provide sanitary and safe conditions. (Carroll 2004) If government pays no attention to the problem, people will be threatened to become new victims. Summing up the material provided it is necessary to admit that Carroll has managed to meet with many people who have made the Plum Island: researchers, scientists, present and pass employees, animal handlers, etc. Furthermore, people â€Å"of the surrounding areas who never wanted the lab facility there in the first place† are also involved in the book narrative. (Carroll 2004) The author provides strong evidence of serious breaches of protection and security and states that such ignorance may lead to viruses’ releases. The consequences would be apparent: devastation of forests and spreading of diseases. It is known that many workers in the island are ill will diseases which are still unidentified by any doctor. Furthermore, the book is filled with suggestions that â€Å"West Nile Virus and other such diseases were actually introduced to U.S. soil via Plum Island†. (Carroll 2004) Thus mishaps could have been responsible for spreading of anthrax, mad cow disease and Rift Valley fever viruses. Carroll also admits that terrorist could have bee provided with lots of opportunities to easily access the island because of improper security systems. Carroll provides evidence that release of deadly viruses and toxins is caused by mishaps on the island. Thus the author concludes that humans nowadays are not safe at all. (Carroll 2004) References Carroll, Michael C. (2004).Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory. New York: William Morrow.   

The Truth About Iraq May Be Elusive Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Truth About Iraq May Be Elusive - Essay Example Was the intelligence on Iraq deliberately corrupted or was there an administrative blunder that skewed the presentations? Was there an overall rush to war after 9/11 during which period the evidence was disregarded in favor of "groupthink"? To answer these important questions, it's necessary to examine the irregularities that surrounded 9/11 and the events that led up to the War in Iraq. We will find a pattern of mismanagement, deceit, and rationalization. The loudest and most convincing case for going to war was based on the belief that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMD). United Nations weapons inspectors had been in and out of Iraq on an irregular basis for the 10 years prior to the fall of 2002 and again just months before the war. They had never found verifiable evidence of a WMD program. In November 2002 the UN team returned to Iraq headed by international expert Hans Blix. They were still unable to report with any conviction the presence of WMD. During this period Donald Rumsfeld, Secretary of Defense, was getting concerned about the lack of evidence for WMD. And he was not alone. General James Marks, in charge of ground intelligence had similar misgivings. When Rumsfeld was questioned about his uncertainty he later admitted that he was unsure. He said, "I was very worried about it" (Woodward 100). When asked if he was aware that a two star general named Spider Marks shared a similar concern about the lack of WMD evidence Rumsfeld replied, "No. I mean, we dealt with the combatant commander's people. I may have met him, but I don't know him" (Woodward 100). It may seem incredulous that in the fine tooth search for WMD, the Secretary of Defense had not talked to, and in fact did not know, the General in charge of ground intelligence. To mislead the public on this critical breakdown in communications would serve Rumsfeld no good purpose. We can only guess that the failure was due to incompetence, indifference, or 'groupthink'. While Rumsfelds's beliefs may have clouded his objectivity, the Niger uranium connection can not be so easily dismissed. During the State of the Union address in January 2003, Mr. Bush said to the nation, "The British government has learned that Saddam Hussein recently sought significant quantities of uranium from Africa" ("State of the Union Address"). However, the CIA had discredited this information as early as 2002 (Stein). Both the CIA and the State Department had voiced doubts about the authenticity of the documents. Yet, the information was included in the address to the public. Days before the war, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the UN Security Council held that the documents were suspect and inaccurate. The FBI would later investigate them as forgeries (Getrz). In the days before the war, Congress raised concern over the issue of the Niger uranium connection. In a letter to President Bush dated March 17, 2003, Representative Henry Waxman wrote, "In the last ten days, however, it has become incontrovertibly clear that a key piece of evidence you and other Administration officials have cited regarding Iraq's efforts to obtain nuclear weapons is a hoax". Because Waxman could see the wheels of war beginning to spin, he closed his letter with a sense of urgency, "Given the urgency of the situation, I would appreciate an expeditious response to these questions.". Honest leaders would have provided a quick and honest reply. The Honorable Henry Waxman would have to wait a full six weeks. On April 29, 2003 he received a letter from a low level State Department employee. It said in part, "Based on what appeared at the time

Business process management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business process management - Essay Example These recommendations were fully accepted by the Trust Board and the Department of Health. There were shortcomings in different aspects in the Trust that are explained below. Failures in Operations management The hospitals lacked well established protocols and pathways for the management of patients admitted in A&E (Accident and emergency) as expressed by (Francis 2010a). This department was understaffed and lacked proper equipment such as defibrillators for resuscitation trolleys. This left very few nurses to conduct urgent assessment of patients and receptionists who had no medical training were forced to take up this job. Nurses in the A&E did not have enough training and the hospital had weak leadership. The number of consultants to provide daily on call cover was insufficient and there were only few middle level doctors. The middle level doctors and junior medical practitioners were not adequately supervised. They were frequently under pressure to make prompt decisions in order to meet the set target of attending all patients in four hours and go through the A&E. This had resulted to a situation whereby patients are taken to the EAU (Emergency Assessment Unit) without necessary diagnosis and assessment. The situation of the EAU was not any different from that of the A&E. The EAU was outsized and had a poor layout and this made it difficult for nurses to tend to patients. This was aggravated by poor communication between patients and the medical staff as well as inadequate staff (Francis 2010b). The situation in this department can be simply described as hectic and chaotic. There was poor compliance with the accepted standards of practice in infection control. There was poor handover from the A&E to the EAU. This notwithstanding the care for patients from heart related conditions was reported to be excellent. The management had failed to attend to serious issues and monitor performance in the hospital. This had led to poor treatment of patients in the emerg ency department. There is poor recording and documentation of the patients’ activity and outcomes and the hospital does not have any reliable historical account of their past patients. The medical team generally lacked proper training to handle different complications. Most of the doctors and nurses admitted that the staff in the EAU lacked the skills to take care of surgical patients (Francis 2010b). There were poor procedures in surgery and the surgeons did not work as a team. Measurements to be taken by the hospital and stake holders There have been improvements on various areas in the trust after the shocking revelation by the investigation (Care Quality Commission 2009). The hospital has hired a greater number of qualified staff to improve the quality of care in the hospital. Training programmes have been set up for different staff to ensure their competence in handling equipment such as monitors and equip them with skills to handle patients. The trust deserves recogniti on for the measures it has undertaken to improve the quality of care in the hospital. There has been increased funding to the trust to hire more staff, purchase equipment and the necessary medication. The regulatory bodies have increased the number of inspections in the hospital to ensure strict adherence to quality standards. Stakeholder groups The DHS (Department of Health Services) works in collaboration with a wide range of stakeholders including community sector, government, voluntary sector, regional

Big Data Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Big Data - Assignment Example es, coupled with consumer loyalty data, gave the retailers unique overviews on product sales, customer buying patterns and overall market trends previously were available to any player in the consumer package goods to retail value chain. According to Liebowitz (2013), all these would have been fine except that in the late 1990s, the development of WWW, on top of the internet was making huge amounts of information readily available and these data sources literally changes the business models of many companies. Today, we are yet in another revolutionized experience of data driven businesses as new sources of data from avenues such as social media, mobile, sensor or machine generated data hold the potential to rewire an organization’s value creation process. Social media data provide insights into customer interests, passions, affiliations and associations and as well is being used for the advertising purposes due to the large audience it attracts. Such data can be used to optimize the customer engagement processes such as customer acquisition, activation, maturation, up-sell/cross-sell, retention through advocacy and development; other data sources provide real time data feeds at the most granular level of detail that enable predictive maintenance, product performance recommendations, and network optimization. Mobile devices on the other hand enable reallocation-based insights and drive real time consumer engagement that allow brick-and-mortar retailers to compete directly with onli ne retailers in providing an improved ,more engaging customer shopping experience, (Simon, & John Wiley & Sons, 2013). The massive volumes that amount up to terabytes and petabytes of data that include diversity and complexity of the data are straining the capabilities of existing technology stacks can be attributed to the less evolution of information technology adoption in businesses. Traditional data warehouse and business intelligence architectures were not designed to handle

Sports Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sports Communications - Essay Example As jet air travel globalized sport, the distinction between the best amateur and the professional players became impossible to maintain; even the Olympic movement abandoned founder Baron Pierre de Coubertin's original devotion to amateurism. Still debatable is whether the quantitative change in the number of viewers of television has completely changed the quality of the sporting experience. Do children, for instance, deliberately emulate the petulant and violent player behavior they often see on television, ignoring the coaches who try to instill principles of fair play Do most coaches, at all levels, put winning before the health and welfare of their players Have international players become simply pawns in the hands of the media industry Or has television simply opened up electronic seats for fans and made it impossible for sportswriters and commentators to glorify people and events those fans can now see for themselves Has media money justified itself by providing training and competing opportunities for those who had previously been excluded from sports they could not afford to learn What is certain is that some sports have always been "more equal than others"; fans choose to what they will give their allegiance. The media can create or increase temporary interest in specific events, but unless what the media discuss or show is rooted in more than the event itself, interest evaporates. Swimming While a complex, rapidly developing sport may be expected to generate many internal problems, synchro's main controversy, "sport or theater," is generated externally, by media that are unwilling to consider as "sport" anything not meeting the "swifter, higher, stronger" standard. But even Sports Illustrated, despite normally less than flattering reviews, admitted in its report on the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, "Synchronized swimmers may look like cupcakes, but they're tough cookies, half the routine is performed upside down in a pool" (Dawn Bean 128). Its water-show beginnings still haunt it. The idea that water ballet is show, while synchronized swimming is sport, has been hard to sell to swimming officials, the public, and the media. Its acceptance into the Olympic Games came only after Lord Killanin, then chair of the International Olympic Committee, saw it for himself at the third World Aquatic Championships. "I am very impressed. I saw synchronized swimming for the first time to day. It is a very elegant sport" (Dawn Bean 197). Synchro enjoys more popularity and acceptance as a sport in parts of the world outside the United States. In every Olympic competition, 1984 through 1996, it has been one of the first sports to sell out all audience tickets. Another issue is male participation. Interestingly, at the turn of the century competitions in the equivalent of figures were for males. Then the beautiful spectaculars of aquacades and films accented the female attraction. Early U.S. competitions included male championships, but they were never popular. Neither U.S. nor international rules prohibit male participation except for the Olympic Games and the World Aquatic Championships. Presently, male participation is greater in Europe than in the United States and Canada. Indeed, in 1991, the

Fulton's Ice Land Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Fulton's Ice Land - Case Study Example Therefore Fulton is trying to adopt some strategies which would increase its profits. Fulton’s current strategy To evaluate the current strategy of Fulton’s ice Land, the 4Cs of marketing is taken into consideration. The 4Cs includes Customer Value, Cost, Convenience and Communication (Crandall, p.57). Fulton’s Ice Land offers indoor staking with a conventional hockey rink surface. Steve operates the staking program and runs a successful hockey program which is accompanied by decent profits. Steve wants to expand his business so that he could allow 700 people at one time in the public session. Steve has 14 public staking session in his ice skating but unfortunately it has not attracted many customers. Out of which the public sessions hold on Saturday and Sunday afternoon has been the most successful, which has recorded an average of 200 people during the winter session. This session has mainly attracted the kids dropped by their parents for many hours and also at tracted few family groups. But the public session operated on Friday and Saturday evening were the biggest disappointment for Steve. This session attracted the age group of 8-14 years and only a handful of young and teenage couples affecting the environment which Steve expected to create for the dating couples and the old patrons. Later Steve limited this session for people of age group above 14 years so to get a better environment for the young crowds. In order to make the skating fun and relaxing Steve installed few lights and music which encourage people to skate to the beats of the music and couples to skate together. Steve basically tried to attract the couples and was successful. Steve hired a local radio disk jockey which attracted many young crowds and couples. Steve realized that it was hard changing the attitude of the people and most of its customers on the weekends belonged to age group of 13 and less. Thus Steve’s effort to attract the teenage and couples did not generate a positive response. Steve’s motive of expanding his public skating program was assumed to attract as many as 700 customers in a public session instead of limiting the use of ice to 12 to 24 players per hour. Steve plans to charge $200 an hour plus concession sale, the two hour public skating would be charged at a rate of $5 per person which would yield up to $3500 for two hours plus a higher concession rate. By operating a large public skating session Fulton expected to earn a profitable turnover. Fulton’s evening session on Friday and Saturday were rated at $5 per person and $1.50 for skate rental. Steve has invested more than $3000 in lighting and about $9000 in promotional activity mainly promoting the rock music radio station which proved to be a failure. Steve operated 14 sessions out of which the public session on Saturday and Sunday were the most successful. The people could choose a session as per their convenience. The kids and families usually arri ved more on Saturday and Sunday during the winter. Fulton Ice Land is situated in the northern part of USA, which is attracted by many Ice Skating rinks; therefore Fulton’s introduction of 14 public sessions would be convenient for the people to choose as per their timings and enjoy the winter with families and friends. Steve used radio as a means of communication in promoting its new offerings, which did not deliver a desired result. Steve spent almost $9000 in promoting the session over rock music radio

Casa vicens Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Casa vicens - Assignment Example This was due to the underlying impressive beautification of the invention that was possessing captivating spaces such as smoking and dining rooms. Moreover, the explosion of pigments in regard to its decorative details was mainly influenced by Arabic and eastern art thus making Casa Vicens a strong forerunner Modernista association. Casa Vicens was originally surrounded by a convent on one side and a magnificent garden on the opposite side (Roe, 2012). The house was extended by Joan Baptisa I Serra in the year 1925 subsequent to the destruction of the initial work. The garden vanished steadily over the years due to the destruction of the underlying monumental fountain with parabolic arch that was designed by GaudI (Crippa & GaudiÃŒ , 2006). Nevertheless, Casa Vicens was restored by architect Ignacio Herreo Jover in the ranging from 2000 and 2005 by combining the underlying facedes finishing which is currently in the market. The plans for Casa Vicens-site main floor, faà §ade is dated back to the 15th January, 1883 and permit for construction was granted 8th march, 1883 (Crippa & GaudiÃŒ , 2006). The construction project provided initially was for a house and a garden. A meeting held on the 27th September presided by Mr. modesto Casals y Leonor, in the Ayuntamiento of Villa de Gracia granted permission to construct ground floor buildings, a water gallery and a corresponding wall on a piece of land situated on Calle Rincon de San Gervasio within Gracia. In the 1929 Jose Fracisco Rafols printed his first and very significant work in regard to Gaudi and the corresponding architecture subject. Architect Antonio Gaudi was in charge of the original project by Mr Manuel Vicens Y Montaner, who inherited the parcel of land from his mother (Crippa & GaudiÃŒ , 2006). Casa Vicens has been in the Jover family since the year 1899 when Dr Antonio Jover who is the grandfather of

Adolescent girls and depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Adolescent girls and depression - Essay Example A research carried out by Blyth, Simmons and Carlton-Ford on the adolescents show that the adolescence period is characterized by intense hormonal influence on the young minded teenagers coupled with a strong urge for self-identity and self-dependence among the adolescents (Blyth et al 109). This often results in the change in their behavior, likes and dislikes as well as emotional vagaries as these teenagers struggle along the long bridge of transition into adulthood. The High school age is characterized by numerous complexities as it marks a period of transition from childhood into adolescence, for the girls, this is often an issue that seeks to define and affect her perceptions and self image. These perceptions go beyond her and also affect those around her including her teenage friends, parents and other adults and require a sound understanding and proper management of one’s self. The teenage high school girl is faced with many challenges during her struggle with the adolescence stage. First is the much workload at school and academic excellence to join best college. This is always the greatest stress causing feeling in the high school adolescents and is the prime cause of heir wanting to withdraw from everyone especially those of their own families in order for them to concentrate fully in shaping their future lives. Baltes in his journal Longitudinal and cross-sectional sequences in the study of age during early adolescence, notes that, alongside all these the teen is also faced with the need to recognize and identify herself with responsibilities in the society as far as her social life is concerned. This is always accompanied with mixed reactions and emotional influences on the young girl. The aspect of moods change and mixed reaction then sets in as the teen girl is unable to fully identify herself amidst the intense struggle (Baltes 163). The need to make strong and mature decisions continuously battle with the

In which place have you felt most inspired and why Essay

In which place have you felt most inspired and why - Essay Example Lined up along side each another were tens of wooden bunk beds. Then he yelled again: "You!" pointing to one of my friends, "get inside that space" and he pointed towards the space between two bunk beds. Then he yelled again: "You—get in next to him!" And so he went on ordering six more of my friends into that space. When we thought it was too much, he just yelled: "Squeeze more!" Finally he stopped, and told my friends who were by now so cramped they couldnt breath, "Now turn to the other side." They were all squeezed in so tightly that turning was impossible. Finally he said: "I didnt turn for three years while I was here. It was cold, we were hungry, and even the most basic act such as turning in your sleep was impossible. It didnt matter if you were black or white, fat or skinny, slow or fast. We were all in the same bed, and NO one could turn." That was Auschwitz, and that was one of the most inspiring moments of my

Workforce Diversity Essay Example for Free

Workforce Diversity Essay An organisation is said to be a social arrangement for achieving controlled performance in pursuit of collective goals (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2010, Seventh Edition). The social arrangement referred to the group of people who interacted with each other as a result of their membership in the organisation; whilst collective goals meant that the members shared the same goals and objectives. These concepts, especially collective goals, were the major arguments advocated by classical management theorists to explain the nature of economic and social life within the organisation. For example, Weber (1964) stressed the importance of rationality and impersonality, and argued that, managers and employees behaved and interacted in a stable and rational way. Henri Fayol (1916) also advocated for the subordination of personal interests and preferences because ignorance, ambition, selfishness and all other human passions tend to cause the general interest to be lost sight of However, as a result of modern growth and expansion of businesses in a globalized economy, corporations became more complex, providing manager with the problem of controlling and organising economic activities. It also resulted in the re-examination of using classical management theories in explaining the new social arrangement, as classic writers focused on rationality and impersonality as it improved organisational efficiency and tended to neglect what McGregor (1960) described as the human side of the enterprise. In other words, there was need to examine the social interaction amongst members of the organisation, as well as recognize that there were differences that existed that prevented a homogeneous workforce. It was these differences that are part of the workforce diversity concept. Workforce diversity, then, is the concept of accepting that the workforce consists of a diverse population of people. The diversity consists of visible and non-visible differences which will include factors such as gender, age, background, race, personality and work style. It is founded on the premise that harnessing these differences will create a productive environment in which everybody feels valued, and where their talents are being fully utilised (Fullerton and Kandola, 1994). In other words, workforce diversity concept accepts that there are fundamental differences in the organisations social arrangement and theses differences play a significant role in achieving organisational objectives, at is has both benefits and implications which can affect the company. Ignoring the importance of workforce diversity can cost the organisation time, money and efficiency. It can lead, for example, to an inability of the organisation to attract and retain talented people of all kinds. For example, Ron Ruggles (2004) argued that in the restaurant industry, it would be difficult to fully staff restaurants, retain management and staff at competitive leadership levels, as well as broaden our understanding of and appeal to our diverse customer base without diversity. We can see then, ignoring workforce diversity can lead to high employee turnover, which in itself would mean a loss in investment in recruitment and training. It would also lead to a limited customer base, thus reducing the potential profit to be earned by the organisation, and can cause the company that is not diverse to be viewed negatively by the public and customers, resulting in a further loss of goodwill and reputation. Ignoring workforce diversity can also lead to legal complaints and action, as the company may be perceived as discriminatory. For example, Clive Seligman (2003) highlighted the case of Wilfrid Laurier University in Ontario, Canada, which advertised a female only faculty position in Development Psychology, with Professor Angelo Santi, chair of the department , admitting that they would not consider a male for the position, even if he were to be better qualified. This practice could be seen as unfair and discriminatory and may have resulted in controversy and bad reputation for the University. This could also happen to an organisation if they were to utilize such practices. Despite this, workforce diversity also has benefits if managed properly, which would be of significant interest to the organisation. One benefit of managing workforce diversity is that it allows for better use of societys stock of human resources, and thus allows the organisation to access the range of skills, expertise and talents available. As Elaine Keight, manager of car manufacturer Jaguar Land Rover said, We are focusing on investing in our work environment to ensure that there are no barriers to anyone joining the company. We want to attract the best talent available, not just graduates, but from all section of the community. (Broughton and Strebler, 2008). This would be important to an organisation, as it should ideally pursue a workforce possessing different skills and backgrounds, and not just from a narrow cross section of society. Workforce diversity may also be significant to the firm in that it can improve levels of social understanding which may lead to new target markets. As Lynn Sullivan (1998) stated, Having a diverse workforce will result in having the capacity to develop more creative ideas and solve problems. After all, people of different backgrounds bring a wide range of experience and more ways of looking at an issue. Chris Pierce et al (2004) concurred, stated that recruiting and retaining people of diverse backgrounds who can share a common business approach is a priority Diversity in gender, age and race is correlated with superior business performance in worker productivity, gross revenue, market share and shareholder value. This means that members of a diverse workforce will be able to give different insights on particular problems and issues, for example, how different products and services may be viewed by different groups, either positively or negatively, which can be a useful tool for the organisation to gauge how successful the product might be. The challenge of workforce diversity, therefore, lies in the continuous improvement of integration and social acceptance of people from different backgrounds. People possess different human characteristics which influences the way they think, act interact and make choices. It is these differences which offer challenges to building trust and commitment and affect the ability to effectively function together. (Kelly, 2001). To address this challenge, management can promote diversity, by various methods, such as mentoring diverse employees; empowering employees to challenge discriminatory behavioural acts and perceptions, as well as provide training for increasing the accuracy of perceptions, and create an appreciation for diverse skills. By doing this management can avoid future problems as well as deal with current issues that may occur in the organisation, thereby improving and strengthening organisational performance. We have, therefore, evaluated the significance of workforce diversity as it relates to the modern organisation, by analyzing the benefits and challenges of workforce diversity, as well as the consequences and adverse repercussions the organisation may encounter if it were to ignore workforce diversity issues.

Iq Tests Not Accurate Measure Of Persons Intelligence Psychology Essay

Iq Tests Not Accurate Measure Of Persons Intelligence Psychology Essay The subject of intelligence is a very contentious area of psychology, as an outcome of warmed argument on the components and determinants for several distinct grades of intelligence. Even then, as persons considered and argued, as not a good way to consider the proficiency of persons, or biased supportive those from distinct communal strata so, to start this consideration, we should gaze at the contentious topics and discover both edges of the topic and the inquiry we start with: Why is the delineation and estimation of intelligence to conceive a problem? (Ciarrochi, J, et al 2001) The concept that we can assess human intelligence in the written check method is usually advised the first two psychologists were presented in 1904, Binet and Simon, who were requested to conceive tests to recognize young children who may require added support from by the school scheme because of smaller intelligence quotient (IQ). By 1905, the first test was set up and prepared to be accomplished by a little experiment of students. Tests were then reconsidered for some years, and numerous other trials were chosen to take part in the standardization method (SP). (Ciarrochi, J, et al 2001) AP was initially conceived to assess the intelligence of young children under the age of 16 years, although, when the report come to America of tests, a psychologist at Stanford University, started to modify and acclimatize the inquiries in the test, in order that by 1960, they could not only test of U.S. scholars but the topics were junior than 18 years. The tests have assisted in the 70s and 80s, and extend to be acclimatized, and now an IQ test can be utilized to test the so-called understanding, extending from 2years to 23 years and 11months vintage, which coincidentally is my age time of this writing. Because of the engagement of Stanford University in the development of these tests, the test is now broadly renowned as the Stanford-Binet test. However, there are numerous inquiries and arguments that enclose these and any other kinds of intelligence / proficiency tests, acknowledging their validity, reliability and neutrality in this matter. History In the past, IQ tests have been glimpsed as a way to differentiate who might be the human right to work on the part of employers, although, it was verified that they can only actually assist find workers for certain work, if it entails many of employed papers and what is educated in school. (Fitness, J. 2000) A study undertook on the validity of the tests IQ (Ghiselli, 1966) displayed that there is a association between the supple dough and work capability / achievement amidst brokers (as it is in require, learned ability), while there was little to no association for those applying the policeman (which needs less learned ability). IQ tests are, thus, stay the best signs of how the taught persons who are fundamentally what they were initially conceived for anyway. Perhaps the most widespread condemnation of testing IQ, is that most of them only to contrast two or three distinct localities of thoughtful features, for example mathematical, spatial perception (to some extent), and syntax, but since there is no clear delineation or exact intelligence the inquiry arises: How can you have intelligence test when you manage not understand precisely what to check? Gardners idea of multiple intelligences back up this condemnation, and he recognized eight localities in which a individual may have a certain allowance of proficiency, which makes to interpret one-by-one dissimilarities rather well. It supposes that every individual has a certain amount: linguistic understanding, melodious understanding, mathematical / ordered understanding, spatial understanding, bodily-kinesthetic understanding, interpersonal understanding, intrapersonal understanding, and has lately supplemented a naturalistic intelligence (pattern acknowledgement and classification of na tural objects). If the idea is correct Gardner, intelligence tests, it is conspicuous shortcomings, because it can not verify the natural forces for example agility movements or linguistic skills. Fitness, J. 2000) It is furthermore worth noting that intelligence tests manage not account for the reality of an idiot, researchers and those who are adept only in certain localities, but are not intelligent, while Gardners idea takes them as smart in those exact areas. He contends that those who contradict with his concepts of multiple intelligences just shocked about going away from the concept of normalized tests, and that the linguistic, melodious, and kinesthetic natural forces just talent. Gardner acquiesces with the concept that these districts may easily be the gifts , and exclusive ordered or mathematical natural forces, is furthermore identified as just a talent. In short, the idea for example Gardner interrogated the end of the normalized intelligence tests. Fitness, J. 2000) Its not just the activity that casts question on Test IQ; reliability should be taken into account. For demonstration, some IQ tests are timed to test the pace with which persons can gaze at and explain problems; although, this begs the inquiry, and can the malfunction to entire testing in time for an individual IQ? And what if he is a personal other than psychological difficulty, which hinders pace test man? Older persons, for demonstration, may bear from age-related difficulties for example arthritis or heart difficulties, which are generally slow down some, but not inevitably sway the brain, but if they were inquired to take timed IQ test that they can not get a outcome that reflects the their thoughtful abilities. (Mayne, T. et, al 2001) Criticism Another locality of condemnation over the test IQ is culture-fair test of the consideration, which takes into account the kinds of inquiries that are put to the test. Any verbal inquiries of method, even if they are converted into distinct dialects, generally heritage biased and thus the best way to remedy this position is to conceive inquiries that use the types and realize the matters, the method, but even they occasionally favor one kind of heritage over another, and it is effectively unrealistic to conceive a absolutely heritage free test. (Mayne, T. et, al 2001) The next locality of condemnation is well renowned consideration of environment, which works with effectively all localities of psychology, which habitually has powerful support from both edges, and the concept of the steadiness of intelligence in particular. They state that the natural human brain can not be altered, and that we should just use what we are born with. (Mayne, T. et, al 2001) If we gaze at the tests IQ, as Binet, and Gardners idea of multiple intelligences, we can glimpse that both of these ideas are inclined to support the environment edge of the argument, and while Gardner will gaze at diverse intelligence and gifts, it does not signify that an individual can discover to intelligence. Sternberg (1985), and his Triarchic idea of intelligence (STS) manage not acquiesce with that, and whereas he accepts that there may be diverse types of understanding, it supposes that there are only actually three constituents of understanding, the context of the intelligence, know-ho w and intelligence. Component utilized to interpret the learned edge of the mind, cognitive answer to the difficulty, and the likelihood of processing information. Cherniss, C. Adler, M. (2000) Contextual endeavors to interpret the proficiency to acclimatize to distinct positions, or heritage natural environment, often mentioned to as Street-Smart, and the know-how of one-by-one intelligence is the proficiency to come by abilities and make it routine. Sternberg accepts as factual intelligence is the number of abilities that can support and not many of built-in purposes that can not be changed. He furthermore evolved diverse types of test that values his idea, and the pace with which persons can come by and request new ability is called: Sternberg Multidimensional Abilities Test. The outcomes of this test will assist persons glimpse where they require enhancement and can be much more helpful to participants in the method than IQ. Sternberg finally supposes that intelligence can be advanced, and there are several deductions to support his theory. There were two very contentious study and publications, although, which not only manage not acquiesce with the rudimentary values of the idea of Sternbergs, but furthermore annoyed because they were released. The first publication, which was presumed to lead to a gigantic warmed argument round the world, that the released Jenson (1969), who said that the homeland of source of the Black tallied on mean 15 points smaller than white people. Cherniss, C. Adler, M. (2000) He proposed that this was mostly due to genetic and very dark persons that, though, may have been a factor; the major cause is the heritability of intelligence. The next part of publications that has initiated so much disturbance when it was issued was a curve to Herrnstein Murray (1994), which is reliable with investigations Jenson, and furthermore shows that those of smaller thoughtful proficiency, as a direct, directs a hard life, is more probable will not be sufficient, the parents themselves, and furthermore more probable to turn to drink, pharmaceuticals and crime. Although these facts highly contentious and democratically incorrect, some points that are probable to be factual, and may to some span, interprets why persons find themselves in that place, but it will only be unquestionable if the two components manage not play a gigantic part of the one-by-one intelligence level, heritage, persons are revealed, and the detail that intelligence is not repaired, and that there are numerous investigations that display of support for such assertions. Test that Jenson made very dark and white topics in 1969 was no question a heritage bias in the direction of white topics, due to the grade of welfare and learning that each assembly was exposed to earlier. Further investigations displayed that very dark young children who were taken up by a prosperous white family, and were exposed to the identical grade of learning displayed an boost in evaluation with the grade of intelligence of young children, alike genetic background. Illustration Adoption investigations for example these are often a powerful contention supportive the formation of edge considerations, but at the last locality of anxiety in the environment / nurture argument theme of eugenics. Eugenics is a concept conceived by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), who was involved in the achievement of British breeders who breeds power and best canines simultaneously, and conceived many of distinct options. (Leible, T., Snell, W.E., Jr. 2002) He determined to start a action, examined the likelihood of dropping awful persons from the good society to get persons to type with those who have good features and attributes that are very ill, even the proposal of the 19th 100 years, and it was shortly closed down because persons determined to type for love, not genes. Nevertheless, the period eugenics was conceived, and possibly most applicable demonstration of eugenics in the annals of limitations of the Immigration Act (1924), which was taken up in America, President Coo lidge, who was said to have declared: America should be American, as he marked the bill; In this day of eugenics, as is renowned, won one of the greatest technical racist assaults in American history.

Advantages of Binary System

Advantages of Binary System The binary number system, base two, uses only two symbols, 0 and 1. Two is the smallest whole number that can be used as the base of a number system. For many years, mathematicians saw base two as a primitive system and overlooked the potential of the binary system as a tool for developing computer science and many electrical devices. Base two has several other names, including the binary positional numeration system and the dyadic system. Many civilizations have used the binary system in some form, including inhabitants of Australia, Polynesia, South America, and Africa. Ancient Egyptian arithmetic depended on the binary system. Records of Chinese mathematics trace the binary system back to the fifth century and possibly earlier. The Chinese were probably the first to appreciate the simplicity of noting integers as sums of powers of 2, with each coefficient being 0 or 1. For example, the number 10 would be written as 1010: 10= 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 Users of the binary system face something of a trade-off. The two-digit system has a basic purity that makes it suitable for solving problems of modern technology. However, the process of writing out binary numbers and using them in mathematical computation is long and cumbersome, making it impractical to use binary numbers for everyday calculations. There are no shortcuts for converting a number from the commonly used denary scale (base ten) to the binary scale. Over the years, several prominent mathematicians have recognized the potential of the binary system. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) invented a bilateral alphabet code, a binary system that used the symbols A and B rather than 0 and 1. In his philosophical work, The Advancement of Learning, Bacon used his binary system to develop ciphers and codes. These studies laid the foundation for what was to become word processing in the late twentieth century. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), adopted in 1966, accomplishes the same purpose as Bacons alphabet code. Bacons discoveries were all the more remarkable because at the time Bacon was writing, Europeans had no information about the Chinese work on binary systems. A German mathematician, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716), learned of the binary system from Jesuit missionaries who had lived in China. Leibniz was quick to recognize the advantages of the binary system over the denary system, but he is also well known for his attempts to transfer binary thinking to theology. He speculated that the creation of the universe may have been based on a binary scale, where God, represented by the number 1, created the Universe out of nothing, represented by 0. This widely quoted analogy rests on an error, in that it is not strictly correct to equate nothing with zero. The English mathematician and logician George Boole (1815-1864) developed a system of Boolean logic that could be used to analyze any statement that could be broken down into binary form (for example, true/false, yes/no, male/female). Booles work was ignored by mathematicians for 50 years, until a graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology realized that Boolean algebra could be applied to problems of electronic circuits. Boolean logic is one of the building blocks of computer science, and computer users apply binary principles every time they conduct an electronic search. The binary system works well for computers because the mechanical and electronic relays recognize only two states of operation, such as on/off or closed/open. Operational characters 1 and 0 stand for 1 = on = closed circuit = true 0 = off = open circuit = false. The telegraph system, which relies on binary code, demonstrates the ease with which binary numbers can be translated into electrical impulses. The binary system works well with electronic machines and can also aid in encrypting messages. Calculating machines using base two convert decimal numbers to binary form, then take the process back again, from binary to decimal. The binary system, once dismissed as primitive, is thus central to the development of computer science and many forms of electronics. Many important tools of communication, including the typewriter, cathode ray tube, telegraph, and transistor, could not have been developed without the work of Bacon and Boole. Contemporary applications of binary numerals include statistical investigations and probability studies. Mathematicians and everyday citizens use the binary system to explain strategy, prove mathematical theorems, and solve puzzles. Basic Concepts behind the Binary System To understand binary numbers, begin by remembering basic school math. When we were first taught about numbers, we learnt that, in the decimal system, things are categorised into columns: H | T | O 1 | 9 | 3 such that H is the hundreds column, T is the tens column, and O is the ones column. So the number 193 is 1-hundreds plus 9-tens plus 3-ones. Afterwards we learnt that the ones column meant 10^0, the tens column meant 10^1, the hundreds column 10^2 and so on, such that 10^2|10^1|10^0 1 | 9 | 3 The number 193 is really {(1*10^2) + (9*10^1) + (3*10^0)}. We know that the decimal system uses the digits 0-9 to represent numbers. If we wished to put a larger number in column 10^n (e.g., 10), we would have to multiply 10*10^n, which would give 10 ^ (n+1), and be carried a column to the left. For example, if we put ten in the 10^0 column, it is impossible, so we put a 1 in the 10^1 column, and a 0 in the 10^0 column, therefore using two columns. Twelve would be 12*10^0, or 10^0(10+2), or 10^1+2*10^0, which also uses an additional column to the left (12). The binary system works under the exact same principles as the decimal system, only it operates in base 2 rather than base 10. In other words, instead of columns being 10^2|10^1|10^0 They are, 2^2|2^1|2^0 Instead of using the digits 0-9, we only use 0-1 (again, if we used anything larger it would be like multiplying 2*2^n and getting 2^n+1, which would not fit in the 2^n column. Therefore, it would shift you one column to the left. For example, 3 in binary cannot be put into one column. The first column we fill is the right-most column, which is 2^0, or 1. Since 3>1, we need to use an extra column to the left, and indicate it as 11 in binary (1*2^1) + (1*2^0). Binary Addition Consider the addition of decimal numbers: 23 +48 ___ We begin by adding 3+8=11. Since 11 is greater than 10, a one is put into the 10s column (carried), and a 1 is recorded in the ones column of the sum. Next, add {(2+4) +1} (the one is from the carry) = 7, which is put in the 10s column of the sum. Thus, the answer is 71. Binary addition works on the same principle, but the numerals are different. Begin with one-bit binary addition: 0 0 1 +0 +1 +0 ___ ___ ___ 0 1 1 1+1 carries us into the next column. In decimal form, 1+1=2. In binary, any digit higher than 1 puts us a column to the left (as would 10 in decimal notation). The decimal number 2 is written in binary notation as 10 (1*2^1)+(0*2^0). Record the 0 in the ones column, and carry the 1 to the twos column to get an answer of 10. In our vertical notation, 1 +1 ___ 10 The process is the same for multiple-bit binary numbers: 1010 +1111 ______ Step one: Column 2^0: 0+1=1. Record the 1.   Temporary Result: 1; Carry: 0 Step two: Column 2^1: 1+1=10.   Record the 0 carry the 1. Temporary Result: 01; Carry: 1 Step three: Column 2^2: 1+0=1 Add 1 from carry: 1+1=10.   Record the 0, carry the 1. Temporary Result: 001; Carry: 1 Step four: Column 2^3: 1+1=10. Add 1 from carry: 10+1=11. Record the 11.   Final result: 11001 Alternately: 11 (carry) 1010 +1111 ______ 11001 Always remember 0+0=0 1+0=1 1+1=10 Try a few examples of binary addition: 111 101 111 +110 +111 +111 ______ _____ _____ 1101 1100 1110 Binary Multiplication Multiplication in the binary system works the same way as in the decimal system: 1*1=1 1*0=0 0*1=0 101 * 11 ____ 101 1010 _____ 1111 Note that multiplying by two is extremely easy. To multiply by two, just add a 0 on the end. Binary Division Follow the same rules as in decimal division. For the sake of simplicity, throw away the remainder. For Example: 111011/11 10011 r 10 _______ 11)111011 -11 ______ 101 -11 ______ 101 11 ______ 10 Decimal to Binary Converting from decimal to binary notation is slightly more difficult conceptually, but can easily be done once you know how through the use of algorithms. Begin by thinking of a few examples. We can easily see that the number 3= 2+1. and that this is equivalent to (1*2^1)+(1*2^0). This translates into putting a 1 in the 2^1 column and a 1 in the 2^0 column, to get 11. Almost as intuitive is the number 5: it is obviously 4+1, which is the same as saying [(2*2) +1], or 2^2+1. This can also be written as [(1*2^2)+(1*2^0)]. Looking at this in columns, 2^2 | 2^1 | 2^0 1 0 1 or 101. What were doing here is finding the largest power of two within the number (2^2=4 is the largest power of 2 in 5), subtracting that from the number (5-4=1), and finding the largest power of 2 in the remainder (2^0=1 is the largest power of 2 in 1). Then we just put this into columns. This process continues until we have a remainder of 0. Lets take a look at how it works. We know that: 2^0=1 2^1=2 2^2=4 2^3=8 2^4=16 2^5=32 2^6=64 2^7=128 and so on. To convert the decimal number 75 to binary, we would find the largest power of 2 less than 75, which is 64. Thus, we would put a 1 in the 2^6 column, and subtract 64 from 75, giving us 11. The largest power of 2 in 11 is 8, or 2^3. Put 1 in the 2^3 column, and 0 in 2^4 and 2^5. Subtract 8 from 11 to get 3. Put 1 in the 2^1 column, 0 in 2^2, and subtract 2 from 3. Were left with 1, which goes in 2^0, and we subtract one to get zero. Thus, our number is 1001011. Making this algorithm a bit more formal gives us: Let D=number we wish to convert from decimal to binary Repeat until D=0 a. Find the largest power of two in D. Let this equal P. b. Put a 1 in binary column P. c. Subtract P from D. Put zeros in all columns which dont have ones. This algorithm is a bit awkward. Particularly step 3, filling in the zeros. Therefore, we should rewrite it such that we ascertain the value of each column individually, putting in 0s and 1s as we go: Let D= the number we wish to convert from decimal to binary Find P, such that 2^P is the largest power of two smaller than D. Repeat until P If 2^P put 1 into column P subtract 2^P from D Else put 0 into column P End if Subtract 1 from P Now that we have an algorithm, we can use it to convert numbers from decimal to binary relatively painlessly. Lets try the number D=55. Our first step is to find P. We know that 2^4=16, 2^5=32, and 2^6=64. Therefore, P=5. 2^5 Subtracting 55-32 leaves us with 23. Subtracting 1 from P gives us 4. Following step 3 again, 2^4 Next, subtract 16 from 23, to get 7. Subtract 1 from P gives us 3. 2^3>7, so we put a 0 in the 2^3 column:  110 Next, subtract 1 from P, which gives us 2. 2^2 Subtract 4 from 7 to get 3. Subtract 1 from P to get 1. 2^1 Subtract 2 from 3 to get 1. Subtract 1 from P to get 0. 2^0 Subtract 1 from 1 to get 0. Subtract 1 from P to get -1. P is now less than zero, so we stop. Another algorithm for converting decimal to binary However, this is not the only approach possible. We can start at the right, rather than the left. All binary numbers are in the form a[n]*2^n + a[n-1]*2^(n-1)++a[1]*2^1 + a[0]*2^0 where each a[i] is either a 1 or a 0 (the only possible digits for the binary system). The only way a number can be odd is if it has a 1 in the 2^0 column, because all powers of two greater than 0 are even numbers (2, 4, 8, 16). This gives us the rightmost digit as a starting point. Now we need to do the remaining digits. One idea is to shift them. It is also easy to see that multiplying and dividing by 2 shifts everything by one column: two in binary is 10, or (1*2^1). Dividing (1*2^1) by 2 gives us (1*2^0), or just a 1 in binary. Similarly, multiplying by 2 shifts in the other direction: (1*2^1)*2=(1*2^2) or 10 in binary. Therefore {a[n]*2^n + a[n-1]*2^(n-1) + + a[1]*2^1 + a[0]*2^0}/2 is equal to a[n]*2^(n-1) + a[n-1]*2^(n-2) + + a[1]2^0 Lets look at how this can help us convert from decimal to binary. Take the number 163. We know that since it is odd, there must be a 1 in the 2^0 column (a[0]=1). We also know that it equals 162+1. If we put the 1 in the 2^0 column, we have 162 left, and have to decide how to translate the remaining digits. Twos column: Dividing 162 by 2 gives 81. The number 81 in binary would also have a 1 in the 2^0 column. Since we divided the number by two, we took out one power of two. Similarly, the statement a[n-1]*2^(n-1) + a[n-2]*2^(n-2) + + a[1]*2^0 has a power of two removed. Our new 2^0 column now contains a1. We learned earlier that there is a 1 in the 2^0 column if the number is odd. Since 81 is odd, a[1]=1. Practically, we can simply keep a running total, which now stands at 11 (a[1]=1 and a[0]=1). Also note that a1 is essentially multiplied again by two just by putting it in front of a[0], so it is automatically fit into the correct column. Fours column: Now we can subtract 1 from 81 to see what remainder we still must place (80). Dividing 80 by 2 gives 40. Therefore, there must be a 0 in the 4s column, (because what we are actually placing is a 2^0 column, and the number is not odd). Eights column: We can divide by two again to get 20. This is even, so we put a 0 in the 8s column. Our running total now stands at a[3]=0, a[2]=0, a[1]=1, and a[0]=1. Negation in the Binary System Signed Magnitude Ones Complement Twos Complement Excess 2^(m-1) These techniques work well for non-negative integers, but how do we indicate negative numbers in the binary system? Before we investigate negative numbers, we note that the computer uses a fixed number of bits or binary digits. An 8-bit number is 8 digits long. For this section, we will work with 8 bits. Signed Magnitude: The simplest way to indicate negation is signed magnitude. In signed magnitude, the left-most bit is not actually part of the number, but is just the equivalent of a +/- sign. 0 indicates that the number is positive, 1 indicates negative. In 8 bits, 00001100 would be 12 (break this down into (1*2^3) + (1*2^2) ). To indicate -12, we would simply put a 1 rather than a 0 as the first bit: 10001100. Ones Complement: In ones complement, positive numbers are represented as usual in regular binary. However, negative numbers are represented differently. To negate a number, replace all zeros with ones, and ones with zeros flip the bits. Thus, 12 would be 00001100, and -12 would be 11110011. As in signed magnitude, the leftmost bit indicates the sign (1 is negative, 0 is positive). To compute the value of a negative number, flip the bits and translate as before. Twos Complement: Begin with the number in ones complement. Add 1 if the number is negative. Twelve would be represented as 00001100, and -12 as 11110100. To verify this, lets subtract 1 from 11110100, to get 11110011. If we flip the bits, we get 00001100, or 12 in decimal. In this notation, m indicates the total number of bits. For us (working with 8 bits), it would be excess 2^7. To represent a number (positive or negative) in excess 2^7, begin by taking the number in regular binary representation. Then add 2^7 (=128) to that number. For example, 7 would be 128 + 7=135, or 2^7+2^2+2^1+2^0, and, in binary, 10000111. We would represent -7 as 128-7=121, and, in binary, 01111001. Note: Unless you know which representation has been used, you cannot figure out the value of a number. A number in excess 2 ^ (m-1) is the same as that number in twos complement with the leftmost bit flipped. To see the advantages and disadvantages of each method, lets try working with them. Using the regular algorithm for binary addition, add (5+12), (-5+12), (-12+-5), and (12+-12) in each system. Then convert back to decimal numbers. APPLICATIONS OF BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM The binary number system, also called the  base-2  number system, is a method of representing numbers that counts by using combinations of only two numerals: zero (0) and one (1). Computers use the binary number system to manipulate and store all of their data including numbers, words, videos, graphics, and music. The term bit, the smallest unit of digital technology, stands for Binary digit. A byte is a group of eight bits. A kilobyte is 1,024 bytes or 8,192 bits. Using binary numbers, 1 + 1 = 10 because 2 does not exist in this system. A different number system, the commonly used decimal or  base-10  number system, counts by using 10 digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) so 1 + 1 = 2 and 7 + 7 = 14. Another number system used by computer programmers is hexadecimal system,  base-16  , which uses 16 symbols (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F), so 1 + 1 = 2 and 7 + 7 = E. Base-10 and base-16 number systems are more compact than the binary system. Programmers use the hexadecimal number system as a convenient, more compact way to represent binary numbers because it is very easy to convert from binary to hexadecimal and vice versa. It is more difficult to convert from binary to decimal and from decimal to binary. The advantage of the binary system is its simplicity. A computing device can be created out of anything that has a series of switches, each of which can alternate between an on position and an off position. These switches can be electronic, biological, or mechanical, as long as they can be moved on command from one position to the other. Most computers have electronic switches. When a switch is on it represents the value of one, and when the switch is off it represents the value of zero. Digital devices perform mathematical operations by turning binary switches on and off. The faster the computer can turn the switches on and off, the faster it can perform its calculations. Binary Decimal Hexadecimal Number Number Number System System System 0 0 0 1 1 1 10 2 2 11 3 3 100 4 4 101 5 5 110 6 6 111 7 7 1000 8 8 1001 9 9 1010 10 A 1011 11 B 1100 12 C 1101 13 D 1110 14 E 1111 15 F 10000 16 10 Positional Notation Each numeral in a binary number takes a value that depends on its position in the number. This is called positional notation. It is a concept that also applies to decimal numbers. For example, the decimal number 123 represents the decimal value 100 + 20 + 3. The number one represents hundreds, the number two represents tens, and the number three represents units. A mathematical formula for generating the number 123 can be created by multiplying the number in the hundreds column (1) by 100, or 102; multiplying the number in the tens column (2) by 10, or 101; multiplying the number in the units column (3) by 1, or 100; and then adding the products together. The formula is: 1  ÃƒÆ'-  102  + 2  ÃƒÆ'-  101  + 3  ÃƒÆ'-  100  = 123. This shows that each value is multiplied by the base (10) raised to increasing powers. The value of the power starts at zero and is incremented by one at each new position in the formula. This concept of positional notation also applies to binary numbers with the difference being that the base is 2. For example, to find the decimal value of the binary number 1101, the formula is 1  ÃƒÆ'-  23  + 1  ÃƒÆ'-  22  + 0  ÃƒÆ'-  21  + 1  ÃƒÆ'-  20  = 13. Binary Operations Binary numbers can be manipulated with the same familiar operations used to calculate decimal numbers, but using only zeros and ones. To add two numbers, there are only four rules to remember: Therefore, to solve the following addition problem, start in the rightmost column and add 1 + 1 = 10; write down the 0 and carry the 1. Working with each column to the left, continue adding until the problem is solved. To convert a binary number to a decimal number, each digit is multiplied by a power of two. The products are then added together. For example, to translate the binary number 11010 to decimal, the formula would be as follows: To convert a binary number to a hexadecimal number, separate the binary number into groups of four starting from the right and then translate each group into its hexadecimal equivalent. Zeros may be added to the left of the binary number to complete a group of four. For example, to translate the number 11010 to hexadecimal, the formula would be as follows: Binary Number System A Binary Number is made up of only 0s and 1s. http://www.mathsisfun.com/images/binary-number.gif This is 1ÃÆ'-8 + 1ÃÆ'-4 + 0ÃÆ'-2 + 1 + 1ÃÆ'-(1/2) + 0ÃÆ'-(1/4) + 1ÃÆ'-(1/8) (= 13.625 in Decimal) Similar to the  Decimal System, numbers can be placed to the left or right of the point, to indicate values greater than one or less than one. For Binary Numbers: 2 Different Values Because you can only have 0s or 1s, this is how you count using Binary: Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Binary: 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 Binary is as easy as 1, 10, 11. Here are some more equivalent values: Decimal: 20 25 30 40 50 100 200 500 Binary: 10100 11001 11110 101000 110010 1100100 11001000 111110100    How to Show that a Number is Binary To show that a number is a  binary  number, follow it with a little 2 like this:  1012 This way people wont think it is the decimal number 101 (one hundred and one). Examples: Example 1: What is 11112  in Decimal? The 1 on the left is in the 2ÃÆ'-2ÃÆ'-2 position, so that means 1ÃÆ'-2ÃÆ'-2ÃÆ'-2 (=8) The next 1 is in the 2ÃÆ'-2 position, so that means 1ÃÆ'-2ÃÆ'-2 (=4) The next 1 is in the 2 position, so that means 1ÃÆ'-2 (=2) The last 1 is in the units position, so that means 1 Answer: 1111 = 8+4+2+1 = 15 in Decimal Example 2: What is 10012  in Decimal? The 1 on the left is in the 2ÃÆ'-2ÃÆ'-2 position, so that means 1ÃÆ'-2ÃÆ'-2ÃÆ'-2 (=8) The 0 is in the 2ÃÆ'-2 position, so that means 0ÃÆ'-2ÃÆ'-2 (=0) The next 0 is in the 2 position, so that means 0ÃÆ'-2 (=0) The last 1 is in the units position, so that means 1 Answer: 1001 = 8+0+0+1 = 9 in Decimal Example 3: What is 1.12  in Decimal? The 1 on the left side is in the units position, so that means 1. The 1 on the right side is in the halves position, so that means 1ÃÆ'-(1/2) So, 1.1 is 1 and 1 half = 1.5 in Decimal Example 4: What is 10.112  in Decimal? The 1 is in the 2 position, so that means 1ÃÆ'-2 (=2) The 0 is in the units position, so that means 0 The 1 on the right of the point is in the halves position, so that means 1ÃÆ'-(1/2) The last 1 on the right side is in the quarters position, so that means 1ÃÆ'-(1/4) So, 10.11 is 2+0+1/2+1/4 = 2.75 in Decimal